Intestinal microbiota and gastrointestinal diseases: Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Abstract
Gastrointestinal microbiota, also known as "microflora," is a collection of microorganisms that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Under normal circumstances, the microbiota helps maintain intestinal homeostasis. However, some resident bacteria can transition from symbionts to pathobionts, leading to the development and progression of gastrointestinal diseases such as functional dyspepsia, severe diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). IBS is a chronic gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain and altered bowel habits, including cramping, gas, and constipation. This mini-review will briefly describe microbiota, IBS, the interrelationship between IBS and microbiota, and the therapeutic use of microbiota in treating IBS.
References
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3. Goulet O. Potential role of the intestinal microbiota in programming health and disease. Nutrition reviews. 2015;73(suppl_1):32-40.
4. Robles-Alonso V, Guarner F. Progress in the knowledge of the intestinal human microbiota. Nutricion hospitalaria. 2013;28(3):553-7.
5. Xiao L, Liu Q, Luo M, Xiong L. Gut microbiota-derived metabolites in irritable bowel syndrome. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2021:880.
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7. Pickard JM, Zeng MY, Caruso R, Núñez G. Gut microbiota: Role in pathogen colonization, immune responses, and inflammatory disease. Immunological reviews. 2017;279(1):70-89.
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11. Sommer F, Bäckhed F. The gut microbiota—masters of host development and physiology. Nature reviews microbiology. 2013;11(4):227-38.
12. Biasucci G, Benenati B, Morelli L, Bessi E, Boehm Gn. Cesarean delivery may affect the early biodiversity of intestinal bacteria. The Journal of nutrition. 2008;138(9):1796S-800S.
13. Mondot S, De Wouters T, Doré J, Lepage P. The human gut microbiome and its dysfunctions. Digestive Diseases. 2013;31(3-4):278-85.
14. Huttenhower C, Gevers D, Knight R, Abubucker S, Badger JH, Chinwalla AT, et al. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature. 2012;486(7402):207-14.
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18. Nagao-Kitamoto H, Kitamoto S, Kuffa P, Kamada N. Pathogenic role of the gut microbiota in gastrointestinal diseases. Intest Res. 2016;14(2):127-38.
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20. Longstreth GF, Thompson WG, Chey WD, Houghton LA, Mearin F, Spiller RC. Functional bowel disorders. Gastroenterology. 2006;130(5):1480-91.
21. El-Salhy M, Patcharatrakul T, Gonlachanvit S. The role of diet in the pathophysiology and management of irritable bowel syndrome. Indian Journal of Gastroenterology. 2021;40:111-9.
22. Adriani A, Ribaldone DG, Astegiano M, Durazzo M, Saracco GM, Pellicano R. Irritable bowel syndrome: the clinical approach. Panminerva Medica. 2018;60(4):213-22.
23. Harris LA, Baffy N. Modulation of the gut microbiota: a focus on treatments for irritable bowel syndrome. Postgraduate medicine. 2017;129(8):872-88.
24. Altobelli E, Del Negro V, Angeletti PM, Latella G. Low-FODMAP diet improves irritable bowel syndrome symptoms: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2017;9(9):940.
25. Bhattarai Y, Muniz Pedrogo DA, Kashyap PC. Irritable bowel syndrome: a gut microbiota-related disorder? American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 2017;312(1):G52-G62.
26. Camilleri M, editor Management options for irritable bowel syndrome. Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 2018: Elsevier.
27. Collins SM. A role for the gut microbiota in IBS. Nature reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2014;11(8):497-505.
28. Öhman L, Törnblom H, Simren M. Crosstalk at the mucosal border: importance of the gut microenvironment in IBS. Nature reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2015;12(1):36-49.
29. Lacy BE, Mearin F, Chang L, Chey WD, Lembo AJ, Simren M, et al. Bowel disorders. Gastroenterology. 2016;150(6):1393-407. e5.
30. Quigley EM. Microflora modulation of motility. Journal of neurogastroenterology and motility. 2011;17(2):140.
31. Simrén M, Barbara G, Flint HJ, Spiegel BM, Spiller RC, Vanner S, et al. Intestinal microbiota in functional bowel disorders: a Rome foundation report. Gut. 2013;62(1):159-76.
32. Margolis KG, Cryan JF, Mayer EA. The microbiota-gut-brain axis: from motility to mood. Gastroenterology. 2021;160(5):1486-501.
33. Cryan JF, O'Riordan KJ, Cowan CS, Sandhu KV, Bastiaanssen TF, Boehme M, et al. The microbiota-gut-brain axis. Physiological reviews. 2019.
34. Bennet SM, Öhman L, Simrén M. Gut microbiota as potential orchestrators of irritable bowel syndrome. Gut and liver. 2015;9(3):318.
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36. Passos MdCF, Moraes-Filho JP. Intestinal microbiota in digestive diseases. Arquivos de gastroenterologia. 2017;54:255-62.
37. Jeffery IB, O'Toole PW, Öhman L, Claesson MJ, Deane J, Quigley EM, et al. An irritable bowel syndrome subtype defined by species-specific alterations in faecal microbiota. Gut. 2012;61(7):997-1006.
38. Crouzet L, Gaultier E, Del'Homme C, Cartier C, Delmas E, Dapoigny M, et al. The hypersensitivity to colonic distension of IBS patients can be transferred to rats through their fecal microbiota. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2013;25(4):e272-82.
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40. Dridi B, Raoult D, Drancourt M. Archaea as emerging organisms in complex human microbiomes. Anaerobe. 2011;17(2):56-63.
41. DuPont AW. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(4):594-9.
42. Connor BA. Sequelae of traveler's diarrhea: focus on postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41 Suppl 8:S577-86.
43. Beatty JK, Bhargava A, Buret AG. Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome: mechanistic insights into chronic disturbances following enteric infection. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20(14):3976-85.
44. Mendall MA, Kumar D. Antibiotic use, childhood affluence and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1998;10(1):59-62.
45. Villarreal AA, Aberger FJ, Benrud R, Gundrum JD. Use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and the development of irritable bowel syndrome. Wmj. 2012;111(1):17-20.
46. Barandouzi ZA, Lee J, Maas K, Starkweather AR, Cong XS. Altered gut microbiota in irritable bowel syndrome and its association with food components. Journal of personalized medicine. 2021;11(1):35.
47. Wallace TC, Guarner F, Madsen K, Cabana MD, Gibson G, Hentges E, et al. Human gut microbiota and its relationship to health and disease. Nutrition reviews. 2011;69(7):392-403.
48. Shukla R, Ghoshal U, Dhole TN, Ghoshal UC. Fecal microbiota in patients with irritable bowel syndrome compared with healthy controls using real-time polymerase chain reaction: an evidence of dysbiosis. Digestive diseases and sciences. 2015;60:2953-62.
49. Carroll IM, Ringel‐Kulka T, Siddle JP, Ringel Y. Alterations in composition and diversity of the intestinal microbiota in patients with diarrhea‐predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Neurogastroenterology & Motility. 2012;24(6):521-e248.
50. Kassinen A, Krogius-Kurikka L, Mäkivuokko H, Rinttilä T, Paulin L, Corander J, et al. The fecal microbiota of irritable bowel syndrome patients differs significantly from that of healthy subjects. Gastroenterology. 2007;133(1):24-33.
51. Rajilić–Stojanović M, Biagi E, Heilig HG, Kajander K, Kekkonen RA, Tims S, et al. Global and deep molecular analysis of microbiota signatures in fecal samples from patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2011;141(5):1792-801.
52. Zhan K, Zheng H, Li J, Wu H, Qin S, Luo L, et al. Gut microbiota-bile acid crosstalk in diarrhea-irritable bowel syndrome. Biomed research international. 2020;2020.
53. Aziz MNM, Kumar J, Muhammad Nawawi KN, Raja Ali RA, Mokhtar NM. Irritable bowel syndrome, depression, and neurodegeneration: a bidirectional communication from gut to brain. Nutrients. 2021;13(9):3061.
54. Spiller R, Garsed K. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2009;136(6):1979-88.
55. Wei W, Wang H-F, Zhang Y, Zhang Y-L, Niu B-Y, Yao S-K. Altered metabolism of bile acids correlates with clinical parameters and the gut microbiota in patients with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2020;26(45):7153.
56. Halvorson HA, Schlett CD, Riddle MS. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome—a meta-analysis. Official journal of the American College of Gastroenterology| ACG. 2006;101(8):1894-9.
57. Thabane M, Kottachchi D, Marshall J. Systematic review and meta‐analysis: the incidence and prognosis of post‐infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2007;26(4):535-44.
58. Schwille‐Kiuntke J, Mazurak N, Enck P. Systematic review with meta‐analysis: post‐infectious irritable bowel syndrome after travellers' diarrhoea. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2015;41(11):1029-37.
59. Pimentel M. The prevalence of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in irritable bowel syndrome: IBS vs healthy controls (not historical definitions). Gut. 2008;57(9):1334-5.
60. Moraes-Filho JP, Quigley EM. The intestinal microbiota and the role of probiotics in irritable bowel syndrome: a review. Arquivos de gastroenterologia. 2015;52:331-8.
61. Gibson PR, Shepherd SJ. Evidence‐based dietary management of functional gastrointestinal symptoms: the FODMAP approach. Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology. 2010;25(2):252-8.
62. Rodiño-Janeiro BK, Vicario M, Alonso-Cotoner C, Pascua-García R, Santos J. A review of microbiota and irritable bowel syndrome: future in therapies. Advances in therapy. 2018;35:289-310.
63. Gu Y, Zhou G, Qin X, Huang S, Wang B, Cao H. The potential role of gut mycobiome in irritable bowel syndrome. Frontiers in microbiology. 2019;10:1894.
64. Shrestha B, Patel D, Shah H, Hanna KS, Kaur H, Alazzeh MS, et al. The Role of Gut-Microbiota in the Pathophysiology and Therapy of Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review. Cureus. 2022;14(8):e28064.
65. Mizock BA. Probiotics. Dis Mon. 2015;61(7):259-90.
66. Lacy BE, Chey WD, Lembo AJ. New and emerging treatment options for irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2015;11(4 Suppl 2):1.
67. Ford AC, Quigley EM, Lacy BE, Lembo AJ, Saito YA, Schiller LR, et al. Efficacy of prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics in irritable bowel syndrome and chronic idiopathic constipation: systematic review and meta-analysis. Official journal of the American College of Gastroenterology| ACG. 2014;109(10):1547-61.
1. Blaser MJ. The microbiome revolution. The Journal of clinical investigation. 2014;124(10):4162-5.
2. Dave M, Higgins PD, Middha S, Rioux KP. The human gut microbiome: current knowledge, challenges, and future directions. Translational Research. 2012;160(4):246-57.
3. Goulet O. Potential role of the intestinal microbiota in programming health and disease. Nutrition reviews. 2015;73(suppl_1):32-40.
4. Robles-Alonso V, Guarner F. Progress in the knowledge of the intestinal human microbiota. Nutricion hospitalaria. 2013;28(3):553-7.
5. Xiao L, Liu Q, Luo M, Xiong L. Gut microbiota-derived metabolites in irritable bowel syndrome. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2021:880.
6. Salem AE, Singh R, Ayoub YK, Khairy AM, Mullin GE. The gut microbiome and irritable bowel syndrome: State of art review. Arab Journal of Gastroenterology. 2018;19(3):136-41.
7. Pickard JM, Zeng MY, Caruso R, Núñez G. Gut microbiota: Role in pathogen colonization, immune responses, and inflammatory disease. Immunological reviews. 2017;279(1):70-89.
8. Sorbara MT, Pamer EG. Interbacterial mechanisms of colonization resistance and the strategies pathogens use to overcome them. Mucosal immunology. 2019;12(1):1-9.
9. Mishima Y, Ishihara S. Molecular mechanisms of microbiota-mediated pathology in irritable bowel syndrome. International journal of molecular sciences. 2020;21(22):8664.
10. Lynch SV, Pedersen O. The human intestinal microbiome in health and disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;375(24):2369-79.
11. Sommer F, Bäckhed F. The gut microbiota—masters of host development and physiology. Nature reviews microbiology. 2013;11(4):227-38.
12. Biasucci G, Benenati B, Morelli L, Bessi E, Boehm Gn. Cesarean delivery may affect the early biodiversity of intestinal bacteria. The Journal of nutrition. 2008;138(9):1796S-800S.
13. Mondot S, De Wouters T, Doré J, Lepage P. The human gut microbiome and its dysfunctions. Digestive Diseases. 2013;31(3-4):278-85.
14. Huttenhower C, Gevers D, Knight R, Abubucker S, Badger JH, Chinwalla AT, et al. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature. 2012;486(7402):207-14.
15. Arumugam M, Raes J, Pelletier E, Le Paslier D, Yamada T, Mende DR, et al. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. nature. 2011;473(7346):174-80.
16. Mukherjee PK, Sendid B, Hoarau G, Colombel J-F, Poulain D, Ghannoum MA. Mycobiota in gastrointestinal diseases. Nature reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2015;12(2):77-87.
17. Rautava S, Luoto R, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Microbial contact during pregnancy, intestinal colonization and human disease. Nature reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2012;9(10):565-76.
18. Nagao-Kitamoto H, Kitamoto S, Kuffa P, Kamada N. Pathogenic role of the gut microbiota in gastrointestinal diseases. Intest Res. 2016;14(2):127-38.
19. Weiss GA, Hennet T. Mechanisms and consequences of intestinal dysbiosis. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2017;74:2959-77.
20. Longstreth GF, Thompson WG, Chey WD, Houghton LA, Mearin F, Spiller RC. Functional bowel disorders. Gastroenterology. 2006;130(5):1480-91.
21. El-Salhy M, Patcharatrakul T, Gonlachanvit S. The role of diet in the pathophysiology and management of irritable bowel syndrome. Indian Journal of Gastroenterology. 2021;40:111-9.
22. Adriani A, Ribaldone DG, Astegiano M, Durazzo M, Saracco GM, Pellicano R. Irritable bowel syndrome: the clinical approach. Panminerva Medica. 2018;60(4):213-22.
23. Harris LA, Baffy N. Modulation of the gut microbiota: a focus on treatments for irritable bowel syndrome. Postgraduate medicine. 2017;129(8):872-88.
24. Altobelli E, Del Negro V, Angeletti PM, Latella G. Low-FODMAP diet improves irritable bowel syndrome symptoms: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2017;9(9):940.
25. Bhattarai Y, Muniz Pedrogo DA, Kashyap PC. Irritable bowel syndrome: a gut microbiota-related disorder? American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 2017;312(1):G52-G62.
26. Camilleri M, editor Management options for irritable bowel syndrome. Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 2018: Elsevier.
27. Collins SM. A role for the gut microbiota in IBS. Nature reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2014;11(8):497-505.
28. Öhman L, Törnblom H, Simren M. Crosstalk at the mucosal border: importance of the gut microenvironment in IBS. Nature reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2015;12(1):36-49.
29. Lacy BE, Mearin F, Chang L, Chey WD, Lembo AJ, Simren M, et al. Bowel disorders. Gastroenterology. 2016;150(6):1393-407. e5.
30. Quigley EM. Microflora modulation of motility. Journal of neurogastroenterology and motility. 2011;17(2):140.
31. Simrén M, Barbara G, Flint HJ, Spiegel BM, Spiller RC, Vanner S, et al. Intestinal microbiota in functional bowel disorders: a Rome foundation report. Gut. 2013;62(1):159-76.
32. Margolis KG, Cryan JF, Mayer EA. The microbiota-gut-brain axis: from motility to mood. Gastroenterology. 2021;160(5):1486-501.
33. Cryan JF, O'Riordan KJ, Cowan CS, Sandhu KV, Bastiaanssen TF, Boehme M, et al. The microbiota-gut-brain axis. Physiological reviews. 2019.
34. Bennet SM, Öhman L, Simrén M. Gut microbiota as potential orchestrators of irritable bowel syndrome. Gut and liver. 2015;9(3):318.
35. Lee KN, Lee OY. Intestinal microbiota in pathophysiology and management of irritable bowel syndrome. World journal of gastroenterology: WJG. 2014;20(27):8886.
36. Passos MdCF, Moraes-Filho JP. Intestinal microbiota in digestive diseases. Arquivos de gastroenterologia. 2017;54:255-62.
37. Jeffery IB, O'Toole PW, Öhman L, Claesson MJ, Deane J, Quigley EM, et al. An irritable bowel syndrome subtype defined by species-specific alterations in faecal microbiota. Gut. 2012;61(7):997-1006.
38. Crouzet L, Gaultier E, Del'Homme C, Cartier C, Delmas E, Dapoigny M, et al. The hypersensitivity to colonic distension of IBS patients can be transferred to rats through their fecal microbiota. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2013;25(4):e272-82.
39. Kim G, Deepinder F, Morales W, Hwang L, Weitsman S, Chang C, et al. Methanobrevibacter smithii is the predominant methanogen in patients with constipation-predominant IBS and methane on breath. Dig Dis Sci. 2012;57(12):3213-8.
40. Dridi B, Raoult D, Drancourt M. Archaea as emerging organisms in complex human microbiomes. Anaerobe. 2011;17(2):56-63.
41. DuPont AW. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(4):594-9.
42. Connor BA. Sequelae of traveler's diarrhea: focus on postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41 Suppl 8:S577-86.
43. Beatty JK, Bhargava A, Buret AG. Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome: mechanistic insights into chronic disturbances following enteric infection. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20(14):3976-85.
44. Mendall MA, Kumar D. Antibiotic use, childhood affluence and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1998;10(1):59-62.
45. Villarreal AA, Aberger FJ, Benrud R, Gundrum JD. Use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and the development of irritable bowel syndrome. Wmj. 2012;111(1):17-20.
46. Barandouzi ZA, Lee J, Maas K, Starkweather AR, Cong XS. Altered gut microbiota in irritable bowel syndrome and its association with food components. Journal of personalized medicine. 2021;11(1):35.
47. Wallace TC, Guarner F, Madsen K, Cabana MD, Gibson G, Hentges E, et al. Human gut microbiota and its relationship to health and disease. Nutrition reviews. 2011;69(7):392-403.
48. Shukla R, Ghoshal U, Dhole TN, Ghoshal UC. Fecal microbiota in patients with irritable bowel syndrome compared with healthy controls using real-time polymerase chain reaction: an evidence of dysbiosis. Digestive diseases and sciences. 2015;60:2953-62.
49. Carroll IM, Ringel‐Kulka T, Siddle JP, Ringel Y. Alterations in composition and diversity of the intestinal microbiota in patients with diarrhea‐predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Neurogastroenterology & Motility. 2012;24(6):521-e248.
50. Kassinen A, Krogius-Kurikka L, Mäkivuokko H, Rinttilä T, Paulin L, Corander J, et al. The fecal microbiota of irritable bowel syndrome patients differs significantly from that of healthy subjects. Gastroenterology. 2007;133(1):24-33.
51. Rajilić–Stojanović M, Biagi E, Heilig HG, Kajander K, Kekkonen RA, Tims S, et al. Global and deep molecular analysis of microbiota signatures in fecal samples from patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2011;141(5):1792-801.
52. Zhan K, Zheng H, Li J, Wu H, Qin S, Luo L, et al. Gut microbiota-bile acid crosstalk in diarrhea-irritable bowel syndrome. Biomed research international. 2020;2020.
53. Aziz MNM, Kumar J, Muhammad Nawawi KN, Raja Ali RA, Mokhtar NM. Irritable bowel syndrome, depression, and neurodegeneration: a bidirectional communication from gut to brain. Nutrients. 2021;13(9):3061.
54. Spiller R, Garsed K. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2009;136(6):1979-88.
55. Wei W, Wang H-F, Zhang Y, Zhang Y-L, Niu B-Y, Yao S-K. Altered metabolism of bile acids correlates with clinical parameters and the gut microbiota in patients with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2020;26(45):7153.
56. Halvorson HA, Schlett CD, Riddle MS. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome—a meta-analysis. Official journal of the American College of Gastroenterology| ACG. 2006;101(8):1894-9.
57. Thabane M, Kottachchi D, Marshall J. Systematic review and meta‐analysis: the incidence and prognosis of post‐infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2007;26(4):535-44.
58. Schwille‐Kiuntke J, Mazurak N, Enck P. Systematic review with meta‐analysis: post‐infectious irritable bowel syndrome after travellers' diarrhoea. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2015;41(11):1029-37.
59. Pimentel M. The prevalence of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in irritable bowel syndrome: IBS vs healthy controls (not historical definitions). Gut. 2008;57(9):1334-5.
60. Moraes-Filho JP, Quigley EM. The intestinal microbiota and the role of probiotics in irritable bowel syndrome: a review. Arquivos de gastroenterologia. 2015;52:331-8.
61. Gibson PR, Shepherd SJ. Evidence‐based dietary management of functional gastrointestinal symptoms: the FODMAP approach. Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology. 2010;25(2):252-8.
62. Rodiño-Janeiro BK, Vicario M, Alonso-Cotoner C, Pascua-García R, Santos J. A review of microbiota and irritable bowel syndrome: future in therapies. Advances in therapy. 2018;35:289-310.
63. Gu Y, Zhou G, Qin X, Huang S, Wang B, Cao H. The potential role of gut mycobiome in irritable bowel syndrome. Frontiers in microbiology. 2019;10:1894.
64. Shrestha B, Patel D, Shah H, Hanna KS, Kaur H, Alazzeh MS, et al. The Role of Gut-Microbiota in the Pathophysiology and Therapy of Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review. Cureus. 2022;14(8):e28064.
65. Mizock BA. Probiotics. Dis Mon. 2015;61(7):259-90.
66. Lacy BE, Chey WD, Lembo AJ. New and emerging treatment options for irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2015;11(4 Suppl 2):1.
67. Ford AC, Quigley EM, Lacy BE, Lembo AJ, Saito YA, Schiller LR, et al. Efficacy of prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics in irritable bowel syndrome and chronic idiopathic constipation: systematic review and meta-analysis. Official journal of the American College of Gastroenterology| ACG. 2014;109(10):1547-61.
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| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/abi.v2i2.17931 | |
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How to Cite
1.
Esmaeili F, Shanaki M. Intestinal microbiota and gastrointestinal diseases: Irritable Bowel Syndrome. ABI. 2025;2(2):61-67.
